Foundations of Organizational Structure Essay Example for Free

Foundations of Organizational Structure Essay TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN COLLEGE ABDM2083 ORGANIZATION HUMAN RESOURCE TUTORIAL 1 General Introduction 1. Ice-breaking session. 2. Self-introduction by tutor and students. 3. Briefing on course requirements. 4. Tutorial expectations and participation. 5. Briefing on Group Report Oral Presentation (requirements and expectations). 6. Team formation for Group Report. (4 members per group) 7. Tutor assigns question and time for oral presentation group report ** Oral presentation and group report submission will starts from Week 3 to 5** **Important note** Students are required to sit for one (1) online test on Week 3. Please make sure that you are registered under this course and be able to access to CEL to take the test. TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN COLLEGE ABDM2083 ORGANIZATION HUMAN RESOURCE TUTORIAL 2 Topic 1 : Foundations of Organizational Structure Part A: Multiple Choice Questions 1) The ________ refers to the number of subordinates that a manager directs. A) span of control B) unity of command C) chain of command D) decentralization principle E) leadership web 2) A task that is subdivided into many separate jobs is considered to have ________. A) a high degree of departmentalization B) a low degree of decentralization C) a high degree of work specialization D) a low degree of structure E) a high degree of matrix structuring 3) Aeronautics Inc., a parts supplier, has departments for government aircraft and contracts, large commercial aircraft clients, and small personal aircraft clients. This is an example of ________ departmentalization. A) product B) function C) geography D) customer E) service 4) Stalsberry Company has employees in personnel, sales, and accounting. This division of an organization into groups according to work functions is an example of ________, the second element of structural organization. A) social clustering B) bureaucracy C) specialization D) centralization E) departmentalization 5) The unbroken line of authority that extends from the top of the organization to the lowest echelon and clarifies who reports to whom is termed ________. A) chain of command B) authority C) span of control. D) unity of command E) web of authority 6) Which one of the following is consistent with a simple structure? A) high centralization B) high horizontal differentiation C) high employee discretion D) standardization E) bureaucracy 7) Which of the following is a drawback of a narrow span of control? It ________. A) reduces effectiveness B) is more efficient C) encourages overly tight supervision and discourages employee autonomy D) empowers employees E) increases participatory decision-making 8) In an organization that has high centralization, ________. A) the corporate headquarters is located centrally to branch offices B) all top level officials are located within the same geographic area C) action can be taken more quickly to solve problems D) new employees have a great deal of legitimate authority E) top managers make all the decisions and lower level managers merely carry out directions TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN COLLEGE ABDM2083 ORGANIZATION HUMAN RESOURCE TUTORIAL 3 Topic 2 : Organizational Culture Part A: Discussion Question 1) Explain the primary methods of maintaining an organizations culture. Once a culture is in place, there are practices within the organization that act to maintain it by giving employees a set of similar experiences. Three forces play a particularly important part in sustaining a culture: selection practices, the actions of top management, and socialization methods. a) First, the explicit goal of the selection process is to identify and hire individuals who have the knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform the  jobs within the organization successfully. It would be naive to ignore that the final decision as to who is hired will be significantly influenced by the decision makers judgment of how well the candidates will fit into the organization. This attempt to ensure a proper match, whether purposely or inadvertently, results in the hiring of people who have values essentially consistent with those of the organization, or at least a good portion of those values. In addition, the selection process provides information to applicants about the organization.   Candidates learn about the organization and, if they perceive a conflict between their values and those of the organization, they can self-select themselves out of the applicant pool. b) In addition to selection, the actions of top management also have a major impact on the organizations culture. Through what they say and how they behave, senior executives establish norms that filter down through the organization as to whether risk taking is desirable; how much freedom managers should give their employees; what is appropriate dress; what actions will pay off in terms of pay raises, promotions, and other rewards; and the like. c) Finally, no matter how good a job the organization does in recruiting and selection, new employees are not fully indoctrinated in the organizations culture. Because they are unfamiliar with the organizations culture, new employees are potentially likely to disturb the beliefs and customs that are in place. The organization will, therefore, want to help new employees adapt to its culture. This adaptation process is called socialization. This is when the organization seeks to mold the outsider into an employee in good standing. Employees who fail to learn the essential or pivotal role behaviors risk being labeled nonconformists or rebels, which often leads to expulsion. But the organization will be socializing every employee, though maybe not as explicitly, throughout his or her entire career in the organization. This further contributes to sustaining the culture. 2) Explain how an institutionalized culture can be a barrier to diversity. Describe how an organization could utilize the three forces at play in sustaining a culture to help create a diverse workforce. By limiting the range of acceptable values and styles, strong cultures put considerable pressure on employees to conform. In some instances, a strong culture that condones prejudice can even undermine formal corporate diversity policies. Strong cultures can also be liabilities when they support institutional bias or become insensitive to people who are different. Hiring new employees who differ from the majority in race, age, gender, disability, or other characteristics creates a paradox: management wants to demonstrate support for the differences these employees bring to the workplace, but newcomers who wish to fit in must accept the organizations core cultural values. Because diverse behaviors and unique strengths are likely to diminish as people attempt to assimilate, strong cultures can become liabilities when they effectively eliminate these advantages. The explicit goal of the selection process is to identify and hire individuals with the knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform successfully. Taking diversity into consideration at this phase does not have to be antagonistic to the culture. The final decision, because its significantly influenced by the decision makers judgment of how well the candidates will fit into the organization, identifies people whose values are essentially consistent with at least a good portion of the organizations. Looking beyond surface level differences at the selection phase will help create a diverse workforce. Through words and behavior, senior executives establish norms that filter through the organization about, for instance, whether risk taking is desirable, how much freedom managers should give employees, what is appropriate dress, and what actions pay off in terms of pay raises, promotions, and other rewards. Management actions should be inclusive and non-prejudicial to create a diverse and functional culture. During the metamorphosis stage of socialization management should use institutional practices to encourage person–organization fit and high levels of commitment. 3) What are the three stages of socialization through which employees become indoctrinated into an organizations culture? The three stages of socialization are prearrival, encounter, and metamorphosis. a) The prearrival stage recognizes that each individual arrives with a set of values, attitudes, and expectations. These cover both the work to be done and the organization. b) Upon entry into the organization, the new member enters the encounter stage. Here the individual confronts the possible dichotomy between her expectations and reality. c) Finally, the new member must work out any problems discovered during the encounter stage. This may mean going through changes hence, this is called the metamorphosis stage. 4) Discuss the difference between strong and weak organizational cultures and discuss the effect that a strong culture can have on an acquisition or merger. Strong cultures have a greater impact on employee behavior and are more directly related to reduced turnover. In a strong culture, the organizations core values are both intensely held and widely shared. The more members who accept the core values and the greater their commitment to those values is, the stronger the culture is. A strong culture will have a great influence on the behavior of its members because the high degree of sharedness and intensity creates an internal climate of high behavioral control. One specific result of a strong culture should be lower employee turnover. A strong culture demonstrates high agreement among members about what the organization stands for. Such unanimity of purpose builds cohesiveness, loyalty, and organizational commitment. These qualities, in turn, lessen employees propensity to leave the organization. In recent years, cultural compatibility has become the primary concern. All things being equal, whether the acquisition actually works seems to have more to do with how well the two organizations cultures match up. The primary cause of failure is conflicting organizational cultures, when people simply dont match up. Therefore, when considering an acquisition or merger, management would need to carefully evaluate the cultures of each organization. TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN COLLEGE ABDM2083 ORGANIZATION HUMAN RESOURCE TUTORIAL 4 Topic 3: Foundations of Group Behavior Understanding Work Teams Part A: Discussion Question 1) List and briefly describe the stages in the five-stage model of group  development. The five-stage group development model characterizes groups as proceeding through five distinct stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. a) Forming is characterized by a great deal of uncertainty about the groups purpose, structure, and leadership. Members are testing the waters to determine what types of behavior are acceptable. b) In the storming stage, members accept the existence of the group, but there is resistance to the constraints that the group imposes on individuality. There is conflict over who will control the group. c) The third stage is one in which close relationships develop and the group demonstrates cohesiveness. There is now a strong sense of group identify and camaraderie. This norming stage is complete when the group structure solidifies and the group has assimilated a common set of expectations of what defines correct member behavior. d) The fourth stage is performing. The structure at this point is fully functional and accepted. Group energy has moved from getting to know and understand each other to performing the task at hand. e) In the adjourning stage, the group prepares for its disbandment. High task performance is no longer the groups top priority. Instead, attention is directed toward wrapping up activities. 2) Design the most effective team to figure out ways to reduce the number of preparation hours for shipping products overseas for your company. Choose the type of team from one of the four principal team types. Describe your teams context, composition, and process parameters. Answers will vary. A problem-solving team is probably the best type of team for this task. In a problem-solving team members share ideas or suggest how work processes and methods can be improved. The problem-solving team will offer ideas to management. Together they discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment. The team will need information on what products are being shipped and how  long each of them takes, as well as details on the current procedures. Adequate information is essential. A firm goal of reducing the hours spent must be established by a leader. The group should be comprised of workers and management with expertise in the shipping department procedures. The team should have five members, three management and two people from shipping and packaging. The process parameters should be clearly outlined, with goals of exactly how much time needs to be shaved off of packaging processes. 3) Explain the difference between groupthink and group shift. Give an example to support your answer. Groupthink is related to norms. It describes situations in which group pressures for conformity deter the group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views. Groupthink is a disease that attacks many groups and can dramatically hinder their performance. Group shift indicates that in discussing a given set of alternatives and arriving at a solution, group members tend to exaggerate the initial positions that they hold. In some situations, caution dominates, and there is a conservative shift. More often, however, the evidence indicates that groups tend toward a risky shift. Students answers may vary. TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN COLLEGE ABDM2083 ORGANIZATION HUMAN RESOURCE TUTORIAL 5 Topic 4: Motivation Concepts Part A: Discussion Questions 1) Compare and contrast a manager that implements Theory Y and one that adheres to the expectancy theory. How would each choose to motivate their employees? Theory Y managers assume that employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play, and therefore the average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility. Theory Y assumes that higher-order needs dominate individuals. Theory Y managers would contend that ideas such as participative decision making, responsible and challenging jobs, and good group relations are approaches that would maximize an employees job  motivation. A Theory Y manager believes that the employee is inherently motivated as long as the conditions respect his intellect and character. A Theory Y manager would work hard to include the employee in decision making concerning his job, to satisfy work environment preferences, and to make sure the work is stimulating. Expectancy theory proposes that employees will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when they believe it will lead to a good performance appraisal; that a good appraisal will lead to organizational rewards such as bonuses, salary increases, or promotions; and that the rewards will satisfy the employees personal goals. An expectancy theory manager would focus much more on the reward expectations of the employee, versus the psychologic expectations. It would be important for the manager to understand the personal goals that the employee strives to achieve so that he can be appropriately rewarded and praised. 2) Describe Maslows hierarchy of needs including the types of needs and how they become dominant. Maslows hierarchy of needs hypothesized that within every human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs. a) The physiological needs include hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs. b) Safety includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm. c) Social includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship. d) Esteem includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement; and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention. e) Self-actualization is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving ones potential, and self-fulfillment. As each of these needs becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. So if you want to motivate someone, according to Maslow, you need to understand what level of the hierarchy that person is currently on and focus on satisfying those needs at or above that level 3) According to Two-Factor Theory, how might a manager motivate employees? According to Herzberg, the factors leading to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction. Therefore, managers who seek to eliminate factors that can create job dissatisfaction may bring about peace but not necessarily result in motivation. Conditions surrounding the job such as quality of supervision, pay, company policies, physical working conditions, relations with others, and job security were characterized by Herzberg as hygiene factors. When they are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied; neither will they be satisfied. If we want to motivate people on their jobs, Herzberg suggested emphasizing factors associated with the work itself or to outcomes directly derived from it, such as promotional opportunities, opportunities for personal growth, recognition, responsibility, and achievement. These are the characteristics that people find intrinsically rewarding. TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN COLLEGE ABDM2083 ORGANIZATION HUMAN RESOURCE TUTORIAL 6 Topic 5: Motivation: From Concepts to Applications Part A: Discussion Questions 1) List and describe THREE (3) different variable-pay programs. Be sure to include piece-rate plans, profit-sharing plans, and gainsharing. a) Piece-rate plans. In piece-rate pay plans, workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed. When an employee gets no base salary and is paid only for what he or she produces, this is a pure piece-rate plan. b) Merit-based pay. Merit-based pay plans also pay for individual performance. However, unlike piece-rate plans, which pay based on objective output, merit-based pay plans are based on performance appraisal ratings. c) Profit-sharing. Profit-sharing plans are organization-wide programs that distribute compensation based on some established formula designed around a companys profitably. d) Bonuses. Bonuses can be paid exclusively to executives or to all employees. Many companies now routinely reward production employees with bonuses in the thousands of dollars when company profits improve. e) Skill-Based Pay. Skill-based pay (also called competency-based or knowledge-based pay) sets pay levels on the basis of how many skills employees have or how many jobs they can do. f) ESOPs. Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs) are company-established benefit plans in which employees acquire stock, often at below-market prices, as part of their benefits. g) Gainsharing. Gainsharing is a formula-based group incentive plan. Improvements in group productivity determine the total amount of money that is to be allocated. By focusing on productivity gains rather than profits, gainsharing rewards specific behaviors that are less influenced by external factors. Employees in a gainsharing plan can receive incentive awards even when the organization isnt profitable. 2) Compare and contrast the benefits of intrinsic rewards such as recognition and extrinsic rewards such as pay as forms of motivation. Organizations are increasingly recognizing that both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are important. Rewards are intrinsic in the form of employee recognition programs and extrinsic in the form of compensation systems. Intrinsic rewards range from a spontaneous and private thank-you to widely publicized formal programs in which specific types of behavior are encouraged and the procedures for attaining recognition are clearly identified. Pay, an extrinsic reward, is not the primary factor driving job satisfaction, however, it does motivate people, and companies often underestimate its importance in keeping top talent. No matter how much recognition a top performer gets, he will be tempted to leave if the pay scale is much lower than the market and another offer arrives. Recent survey data indicate most employees dont see a strong connection between pay and performance. Variable pay structures, such as bonuses are often the best production motivators. When pay is tied to performance, the employees earnings also recognize contribution rather  than being a form of entitlement. Over time, low performers pay stagnates, while high performers enjoy pay increases commensurate with their contributions. An obvious advantage of intrinsic rewards like recognition programs is that they are inexpensive since praise is free. However, they are highly susceptible to political manipulation by management. When applied to jobs for which performance factors are relatively objective, such as sales, recognition programs are likely to be perceived by employees as fair. However, in most jobs, the criteria for good performance arent self evident, which allows managers to manipulate the system and recognize their favorites. Abuse can undermine the value of recognition programs and demoralize employees. Research suggests financial incentives may be more motivating in the short term, but in the long run intrinsic incentives will retain good employees if the extrinsic incentives are competitive. 3) What is employee involvement and why is it important. Give two examples. Employee involvement is defined as a participative process that uses the entire capacity of employees and is designed to encourage increased commitment to the organizations success. The underlying logic is that by involving workers in those decisions that affect them and by increasing their autonomy and control over their work lives, employees will become more motivated, more committed to the organization, more productive, and more satisfied with their jobs. Examples of employee involvement include a) Participative management. Participative management programs use joint decision making. Subordinates actually share a significant degree of decision-making power with their immediate superiors. b) Representative participation. Representative participation refers to worker representation by a small group of employees who actually participate on the board. The goal is to redistribute power within an organization, putting labor on a more equal footing with the interests of management and stockholders. TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN COLLEGE ABDM2083 ORGANIZATION HUMAN RESOURCE TUTORIAL 7 Topic 6: What do Managers Do Leadership Part A: Multiple Choice Questions 1) Which of the following is most likely to be a belief held by a successful manager? A) Technical knowledge is all that is needed for success. B) It is not essential to have sound interpersonal skills. C) Technical skills are necessary, but insufficient alone for success. D) Effectiveness is not impacted by human behavior. E) Technical skills do not influence efficiency. 2) Which of a managers primary functions requires the manager to define an organizations goals, establish an overall strategy for achieving these goals and develop a comprehensive hierarchy of plans to integrate and coordinate activities? A) controlling B) planning C) staffing D) coordinating E) leading 3) As a manager, one of Joes duties is to present awards to outstanding employees within his department. Which Mintzberg managerial role is Joe acting in when he does this? A) leadership role B) liaison role C) monitor role D) figurehead role E) spokesperson role 4) Jill is valued by her colleagues for her ability to perform effective break-even analysis on upcoming ventures. In this case, her colleagues value her for competencies that fall within which essential management skills categories? A) technical B) communication C) human D) conceptual E) education 5) Leadership is best defined as ________. A) the ability to influence a group in goal achievement B) keeping order and consistency in the midst of change C) implementing the vision and strategy provided by management D) coordinating and staffing the organization and handling day-to-day problems E) not a relevant variable in modern organizations 6) The two dimensions of leadership behavior identified in the University of Michigan studies are ________. A) coercion and motivation B) emotional and rational C) employee-oriented and production-oriented D) initiating structure and consideration E) initiation and completion Part B: Discussion Questions 1) Describe the three essential management skills that differentiate effective managers from ineffective ones. Provide a workplace example of how these skills could be used when dealing with the challenge of a workplace recession. The three essential management skills identified by researchers are technical, human, and conceptual. Technical skills are defined by the ability to apply specialized knowledge or expertise. Human skills are defined by the ability to work with, understand, and motivate other people. Finally, conceptual skills are defined by the ability to analyze and diagnose complex situations. In a time of recession human skills are essential to motivate fearful employees and to create a positive work environment. They would also be necessary in the event of workplace staff reduction. Technical skills could be applied in the area of expertise to raise production and, combined with conceptual skills, can be used to look for small market niches and ways to analyze the industry to continue to make a profit until times are better. TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN COLLEGE ABDM2083 ORGANIZATION HUMAN RESOURCE TUTORIAL 8 Topic 7: Leadership Part A: Multiple Choice Questions 1) Hersey and Blanchard developed which of the following? A) situational leadership theory B) cognitive resource theory C) managerial grid model D) path-goal theory E) cognitive orientation model 2) Hersey and Blanchards leadership theory differs from other leadership theories primarily because it ________. A) explores the role of the expectations of the leader for the follower B) focuses on the followers C) holds that leadership style should be dependent on the situation D) is normative E) deals strictly and exclusively with contingencies 3) What is the main principle of path-goal theory? A) Successful leadership is achieved by selecting the right leadership style. B) Stress is a form of situational unfavorableness and a leaders reaction to it depends on his or her intelligence and experience. C) Effective group performance depends on the proper match between the leaders style and the degree to which the situation gives control to the leader. D) Leaders establish a special relationship with a small group of their followers because of time pressures. E) The leader is responsible for providing followers with the information, support, or other resources necessary for them to do their jobs. 4) Which of the following is not a key characteristic of a charismatic leader? A) sensitivity to follower needs B) unconventional behavior C) vision and articulation D) task orientation E) willingness to take risks 5) Researchers are conducting a study of a company called Acme Corp, which they believe to be led by a transformational leader. Which of the following, if true, would most support the conclusion that Acmes leader is a transformational leader? A) Acmes top managers often conflict over defining the organization’s goals. B) Acmes goals tend to be very ambitious and to hold personal value for employees. C) Creativity is discouraged among Acme employees. D) Acme managers are cautious and rarely take risks. E) Acmes compensation plans are designed to reward short-term results. 6) Leaders who clarify role and task requirements to accomplish established goals exhibit a _________ style of leadership. A) transformational B) transactional C) charismatic D) self-initiating E) situational 7) Richard is a transactional leader who has just assigned a series of tasks to a project team. Which of the following is most likely to be true about the teams performance under Richards guidance? A) They will set new standards of productivity for the department, exceeding Richards expectations. B) They will meet the goals set for them but are unlikely to go beyond those goals. C) They will tend to be unclear about the roles assigned to each team member. D) They will be highly motivated by what they view as Richards heroic or extraordinary qualities. E) They will tend to put their individual self-interest above the interests of the company. Part B: Discussion Questions 1)Compare and contrast Hersey and Blanchards situational leadership theory with Houses path-goal theory. Hersey and Blanchards situation leadership theory is a contingency theory  that focuses on the followers. Successful leadership is achieved by selecting the right leadership style, which Hersey and Blanchard argue is contingent on the level of the followers readiness. The emphasis on the followers in leadership effectiveness reflects the reality that it is the followers who accept or reject the leaders. The term readiness refers to the extent to which people have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task. SLT says if a follower is unable and unwilling to do a task, the leader needs to give clear and specific directions; if followers are unable and willing, the leader needs to display high task orientation to compensate for the followers lack of ability and high relationship orientation to get the follower to buy into the leaders desires; if followers are able and unwilling, the leader needs to use a supportive and participative style; and if the employee is both abl e and willing, the leader doesnt need to do much. Path-goal theory was developed by Robert House. The essence of the theory is that its the leaders job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide the necessary direction and/or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization. The term path-goal is derived from the belief that effective leaders clarify the path to help their followers get from where they are to the  achievement of their work goals and make the journey along the path easier by reducing roadblocks. House identified four leadership behaviors. The directive leader lets followers know what is expected of them, schedules work to be done, and gives specific guidance as to how to accomplish tasks. The supportive leader is friendly and shows concern for the needs of followers. The participative leader consults with followers and uses their suggestions before making a decision. The achievement-oriented leader sets challenging goals and expects followers to perform at their highest level. House assumes that leaders are flexible and that the same leader can display any or all of these behaviors depending on the situation. TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN COLLEGE ABDM2083 ORGANIZATION HUMAN RESOURCE TUTORIAL 9 Topic 8: Communication Part A: Multiple Choice Questions 1) Communication serves all of the following functions within a group or organization except ________. A) motivation B) planning C) emotional expression D) control E) conveying information 2) Alejandro is annoyed that the new recruit, Ben, is working faster than anyone else in the group, making the rest of the group look bad. In the company cafeteria Alejandro teases Ben and calls him the super recruit and imitates his style of working so rapidly. Alejandro wants to intimidate Ben so that he will work slower. Which function of communication is Alejandro using by making fun of Ben? A) motivation B) control C) expression D) information E) formal 3) Helena and Laura were talking on the phone. Lauras two year old son fell and started crying and Laura could no longer hear what Helena said. This is an example of ________. A) transmitting B) decoding C) noise D) understanding E) analysis 4) The communication used by managers to provide job instructions is ________ communication. A) downward B) lateral C) formal D) directional E) diagonal Part B: Discussion Questions 1)Describe the communication process. Include the communication process model and explain the eight parts of this model. Before communication can take place, a purpose, expressed as a message to be conveyed, is needed. It passes between a sender and a receiver. The message is encoded (converted to a symbolic form) and passed by way of some medium (channel) to the receiver, who retranslates (decodes) the message initiated by the sender. The result is a transfer of meaning from one person to another. The key parts of the communication process are 1) the sender 2) encoding 3) the message 4) the channel 5) decoding 6) the receiver 7) noise 8) feedback The source initiates a message by encoding a thought. The message is the actual physical product from the source encoding. The channel is the medium through which the message travels. The receiver is the object to whom the message is directed. The symbols must be translated into a form that can be understood by the receiver. This is the decoding. Noise represents communication barriers that distort the clarity of the message. The final link is a feedback loop. 2) Explain how the grapevine functions and why it exists in organizational communication. Describe the general direction of communication and the form of communication most commonly used in the grapevine. What can a manager do to limit the negative effects of the grapevine? The informal communication system is the grapevine. While it is informal it is still an important source of information. A survey found that 75 percent of employees hear about matters first through rumors on the grapevine. The grapevine has three main characteristics. First, it is not controlled by management. Second, most employees perceive it as more believable and reliable than formal communiquà ©s issued by top management. Finally, it is largely used to serve the interests of the people within it. Rumors emerge as a response to situations that are important to us, when there is ambiguity, and under conditions that arouse anxiety. The fact that work situations frequently contain these three elements explains why rumors flourish in organizations. The secrecy and competition that typically prevail in large organizations, encourage and sustain rumors on the grapevine. A rumor will persist either until the wants and expectations creating the uncertainty are fulfilled or the anxiety has been reduced. The grapevine generally follows lateral communication in which persons from the same hierarchical levels begin to relay messages. Very rarely does management participate in the grapevine. In fact, one study reported that management only relayed messages to the grapevine ten percent of the time. Generally oral communication is used to relay grapevine information, although written e-mail can be used as well, but is considered less safe for accountability reasons. Managers can not entirely eliminate rumors. What they should do is minimize the negative consequences of rumors by limiting their range and impact. The best way to reduce the negative consequences of rumors is to: 1) Provide information; 2) Explain actions and decisions that may appear inconsistent, unfair, or secretive; 3) Refrain from shooting the messenger; and 4) Maintain open communication channels. TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN COLLEGE ABDM2083 ORGANIZATION HUMAN RESOURCE TUTORIAL 10 Topic 9: Conflict Management Part A: Multiple Choice Questions 1) The traditional view of conflict is the belief that conflict is ________. A) harmful B) natural C) necessary D) situationally-dependent E) neutral 2) Which of the following is not a cause of conflict, according to the traditionalist view? A) general poor communication between people B) lack of openness in the organization C) trust between people in the organization D) management failure to be responsive to employee needs E) management failure to be responsive to employee aspirations 3) The ________ view of conflict argues that conflict is necessary for a group to perform effectively. A) human relations B) interactionist C) traditional D) functional E) reactive 4) ________ conflicts are almost always dysfunctional. A) Task B) Job C) Relationship D) Process E) Functional 5) The first stage of the conflict process is termed ________. A) cognition and personalization B) behavioral manifestation C) potential opposition or incompatibility D) intention E) habituation 6) High job specialization can lead to ________ conflict. A) communication B) structural C) personal-variable D) job-related E) team 7) In which stage are conflict issues defined? A) potential opposition B) cognition and personalization C) intuitions D) behavior E) reaction and transference 8) The conflict-handling intention of collaborating is ________. A) assertive and uncooperative B) assertive and cooperative C) unassertive and uncooperative D) unassertive and cooperative E) affective and reflective 9) Angelina feels that her cubicle neighbor talks too loudly on the phone, but in other ways she is a great neighbor. Angelina gets annoyed every time her neighbors phone rings, but she has decided its simply not worth the trouble to talk to her neighbor. Angelinas conflict intention is called ________. A) competing B) avoiding C) accommodating D) compromising E) collaborating 10) Which of the following is not a conflict-resolution technique? A) creating superordinate goals B) appointing a devils advocate C) avoiding the conflict D) exercising authoritative command E) generating additional resources 11) Stage II of the conflict process deals with conflict being ________. A) perceived and felt B) apparent and experienced C) expressed and perceived D) overt and covert E) internalized 12) Irma does not like a few of the standard operating procedures adapted for the new project. However, she discussed the items with the team and told them that she realized she was in the minority and that she would adapt the new procedures to maintain smooth operations within the team. This type of intention is called ________. A) sacrificing B) accommodating C) collaborating D) compromising E) competing TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN COLLEGE ABDM2083 ORGANIZATION HUMAN RESOURCE TUTORIAL 11 Topic 10: Power and Politics Part A: Multiple Choice Questions 1) Power can be defined as ________. A) the ability to influence the behavior of others B) the actualization of the dependency of others C) congruence between the goals of the leader and those being led D) downward influence on ones followers E) upward influence on ones leaders 2) One reacts to ________ power out of fear of the negative ramifications that might result if one fails to comply. A) legitimate B) coercive C) punitive D) referent E) abusive 3) The power that the College Dean has been granted by the University over the faculty is termed ________ power. A) academic B) positional C) legitimate D) organizational E) balanced 4) Power tactics can be defined as ________. A) the only legitimate sources of power B) techniques for translating power bases into specific action C) strategies for gathering and maintain support D) organizational structural characteristics E) approaches for winning arguments 5) Vivian has not been handling one portion of her duties in a satisfactory manner. As a result, her manager threatens to withhold her promotion. Which power tactic is being used? A) exchange B) ingratiation C) pressure D) personal appeals E) inspirational appeals Part B: Discussion Questions 1) Contrast leadership and power. Power does not require goal compatibility, merely dependence. Leadership, on the other hand, requires some congruence between the goals of the leader and those being led. A second difference relates to the direction of influence. Leadership focuses on the downward influence on ones followers. It minimizes the importance of lateral and upward influence patterns. Power does not. Still another difference deals with research emphasis. Leadership research, for the most part, emphasizes style. It seeks answers to such questions as: How supportive should a leader be? How much decision making should be shared with followers? The research on power encompasses a broader area and focus on tactics for gaining compliance. Power can be used by groups as well as by individuals to control other individuals or groups. 2) List and discuss the bases of personal power. Personal power comes from an individuals unique characteristics. Two bases of personal power are expertise, the respect and admiration of others. a) Expert power is influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skill, or knowledge. Expertise has become one of the most powerful sources of influence as the world has become more technologically oriented. b) Referent power is based on identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits. If I like, respect, and admire you, you can exercise power over me because I want to please you. 3) Distinguish between legitimate political behavior and illegitimate political behavior. Legitimate political behavior refers to normal everyday politics complaining to your supervisor, bypassing the chain of command, forming coalitions, obstructing organizational policies or decisions through inaction or excessive adherence to rules, and developing contacts outside the organization through ones professional activities. On the other hand, there are also illegitimate political behaviors that violate the implied rules of the game. Those who pursue such extreme activities are often described as individuals who play hardball. Illegitimate activities include sabotage, whistleblowing, and symbolic protests such as wearing unorthodox dress or protest buttons, and groups of employees simultaneously calling in sick. TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN COLLEGE ABDM2083 ORGANIZATION HUMAN RESOURCE TUTORIAL 12 Topic 11: Human Resource Policies and Practices (Human Resource Planning Forecasting, Recruitment) Part A: Discussion Questions 1) Define human resource planning. Describe the TWO (2) components in human resource planning. Human resource planning is the systematic process of matching the internal and external supply of people with job openings anticipated in the organization over a specific period of time. Human resource planning has 2 components: requirements and availability. A requirements forecast involves determining the number, skill, and location of employees the organization will need at future dates in order to meet its goals. The determination of whether the firm will be able to secure employees with the necessary skills, and from what sources, is called an availability forecast. 2) Describe human resource databases and how databases can assist in matching internal employees to positions. A human resource database contains employee information that permits management to make HR decisions. Information that might appear in such databases, includes, but is not limited to, the following: work history and experience, specific skills and knowledge, licenses or certifications held, organizational training completed, educational background, previous performance appraisal evaluations, assessment of strengths and weaknesses, development needs, promotion potential at present, and with further development, current job performance, field of specialization, job preferences, geographic preferences, career goals and aspirations, anticipated retirement date, and personal history, including psychological assessments. Databases are being used by organizations to enable human resources to match people with positions. 3) List TWO (2) methods are available to firms when either a shortage or surplus of workers is forecasted? Firms faced with a shortage of workers may use: 1) 2) 3) 4) innovative recruiting, compensation incentives, and training programs to fill positions. Lowering of employment standards Firms faced with a surplus of workers may use: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) layoffs,  restricted hours,  hiring freezes may be necessary, and  encourage early retirement and  the use of vacation time. TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN COLLEGE ABDM2083 ORGANIZATION HUMAN RESOURCE TUTORIAL 13 Topic 12: Human Resource Policies and Practices (Selection) Part A: Multiple Choice Questions 1) Which of the following is the most common method of initial selection? A) written tests B) background check C) performance test D) application form E) work-sample test 2) More than ________ percent of employers conduct some type of background check on potential employees during some point in the hiring process, usually either in the initial phase or the contingent phase. A) 25 B) 50 C) 65 D) 80 E) 95 3) The best way for an employer to find out if a potential employee can do a job is by ________. A) using the interview process B) using a written test C) having them spend a day in the office D) administering an IQ test E) using a performance simulation test 4) Work sample tests are widely used in hiring ________. A) unskilled labor B) skilled workers C) professional workers D) managers E) knowledge workers 5) The results of which of the following tend to have a disproportionate amount of influence on employee selection decisions? A) interviews B) written tests C) performance simulation tests D) work sampling methods E) personality tests 6) The behavioral structured interview is built on the assumption that ________. A) past behavior is the best predictor of future behavior B) technical knowledge and skills are the best predictor of job performance C) personality is the best predictor of job performance D) personality and mood are highly correlated E) technical knowledge and mood are highly correlated Part B: TRUE /FALSE Questions 1) As a selection device, written tests have decreased in usage during the past 20 years. (TRUE /FALSE) 2) A test that measures factors such as dependability, carefulness, responsibility, and honesty is referred to as a performance factor test. (TRUE /FALSE) 3) Work samples yield validities almost consistently superior to written aptitude tests. (TRUE /FALSE) 4) In assessment centers, job candidates are evaluated as they go through several days of exercises that simulate real problems they would confront on the job. (TRUE /FALSE) TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN COLLEGE ABDM2083 ORGANIZATION HUMAN RESOURCE TUTORIAL 14 Topic 13 14: Human Resource Policies and Practices (Performance Evaluation) Part A: Multiple Choice Questions 1) Performance evaluations today are generally based on which three types of behavior? A) task performance, productivity, tenure B) productivity, efficiency, absenteeism C) task performance, citizenship, counterproductivity D) citizenship, counterproductivity, personality E) leadership, training, efficiency 2) Performance evaluations are used as a mechanism for all of the following except ________. A) monitoring the success of marketing strategies B) determining promotions C) pinpointing employees skills D) identifying training and development needs E) providing feedback to employees 3) Which of the following is not a weakness of the 360-degree evaluation system? A) artificially inflated feedback from peers B) insufficient training for performance evaluators C) discrepancies between evaluating groups D) provides a wide performance perspective E) difficulties in reconciling differing evaluations 4) Performance evaluations are used to ________. A) improve group cohesiveness B) define departmental structure C) help management make HR decisions D) identify how jobs are completed E) decrease conformity within organizations 5) Which of the following is the least predictive set of criteria used to evaluate employees? A) traits B) task outcomes C) behaviors D) personality E) mood Part B: Discussion Questions 1) What are the three most popular sets of criteria for evaluating employee performance? The three most popular sets of criteria for evaluating employee performance are individual task outcomes, behaviors, and traits. a) If ends count, rather than means, then management should evaluate an employees task outcomes. In many cases, its difficult to identify specific outcomes that can be directly attributable to an employees actions. b) Its not unusual for management to evaluate the employees behavior. c) The weakest set of criteria, yet one that is widely used by organizations is individual traits. They are weaker because they are farthest removed from the actual performance of the job itself. 2) Who should perform employee evaluations? With many of todays organizations using self-managed teams, telecommuting, and other organizing devices that distance bosses from their employees, an employees immediate superior may not be the most reliable judge of that employees performance. Thus, in more and more cases, peers and even subordinates are being asked to participate in the performance evaluation process. Also, increasingly, employees are participating in their own performance evaluation. In most situations, in fact, it is highly advisable to use multiple sources of ratings. Any individual performance rating may say as much about the rater as about the person being evaluated. By averaging across raters, we can obtain a more reliable, unbiased, and accurate performance evaluation.

Mental Development of Children with Down Syndrome

Mental Development of Children with Down Syndrome Down Syndrome Research Paper Brandon D. Coronado Learning and Cognition All psychology students, at some point during their studies, learn about the topic of mental development in children. However, students sometimes fail to learn how those with disabilities differ when it comes to mental development. The typical child’s development differ dramatically when compared to children with a development disability. One of a large number of developments disabilities is Down syndrome, where an individual learns and functions on a different level than others. Children with this developmental disability primarily differ in their cognitive development, socialization, education and attachment. Pamela May, author of Child Development in Practice: Responsive Teaching and Learning from Birth to Five defines cognitive development as â€Å"The mental process of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning and judgment† (2011, 16). Jean Piaget, a recognized psychologist, expresses that development split among four phases; sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational. As stated by Cicchetti and Beeghly (1990), adolescents with and those without disabilities experience the same stages. Nevertheless, adolescents with developmental disabilities are believed to proceed through these various phases gradually compared to other adolescents with no developmental disabilities (Hill McCune-Nicolich 1981). Within a study concluded by Hill and McCune-Nicolich’s, children with Down syndrome developed at a much slower rate within the preoperational phase when compared to children without Down syndrome. The group comprised of adolescents with Down syndrome generating outcomes consisting of a 50% failure in development throughout the preoperational stage measure against the group of children without the disability. This study parallels Cicchetti and Beeghly theory, observing slight to no differentiation throughout the sensorimotor stage however observed a delayed developmental pace regarding children with Down syndrome throughout the preoperational stage. What precisely triggers this obstruction in adolescents with Down syndrome? These adolescents are affected by a variation in their genotype. These persons possess an additional chromosome called trisomy-21, which influences their development. Down syndrome influences adolescents in every phase of development. Sanz, Menà ©ndez Rosique state, â€Å"This chromosomal disorder affects the development of physical structures, motor functioning, cognitive abilities and communicative skills in varying degrees† (2011, 488). Language functioning seemed to be difficult during the preoperational phase for adolescent’s affected by Down syndrome. Cicchetti and Beeghly describe that despite the fact that this struggle is associated with the disorder, Down syndrome adolescents tend to be placed in inadequate linguistic surroundings. Parents of affected adolescents stereotypically lower their expectancies of language abilities upon discovering their adolescent’s disorder. Cicchetti and Beeghly refer to a 1985 study by Mervis and Cardoso-Martins where mothers confessed that they were fearful their children influenced by Down syndrome would never learn to talk. Nevertheless, Leifer and Lewis conducted a study in 1984 exploring Down syndrome adolescents’ verbal skills in depth. The researchers recognized various characteristics of language which had not been exclusively considered in earlier studies. Researchers chose to study whether or not adolescents with Down syndrome will continue to struggle with conversational language versus grammatical/relational language. The researchers discovered that adolescents affected by Down syndrome were essentially superior at holding a conversation compared to adolescents without a disability. In regards to the information provide, there is confirmation proposing Down Syndrome adolescents possess superior social language skills compared to adolescents without the disability. Sanz, Menà ©ndez Rosique conducted a study in which, adolescents affected by Down syndrome were subjected to a verbal strengthening group or a physical strengthening group. Each type of constructive reinforcement impacted the adolescents. The adolescents produced more encouraging responses to verbal reinforcement versus the physical reinforcement. Why the adolescents favored verbal reinforcement is not entirely evident, nevertheless a trend was obvious. The adolescents flourished when presented with social praise for their accomplishments. However this is also true for unaffected adolescents as well, it is crucial for adolescent affected by Down syndrome. Their disorder triggers reservation in their actions as to whether what they are doing right or wrong on a steady basis. As a result, these adolescents function at a higher level when they are socialized through affirmative support. Conversely, in a study by Drash, Raver, Murrin Tudor (1989), adolescents affected by Down syndrome did not successfully socialize when presented constructive support alone. They combined visual examination into the constructive support. When measure against affirmative strengthening alone, the addition of visual examination generated more social interaction from the children. It becomes evident that adolescents affected by Down syndrome need much more stimulus than adolescents not affected in regards to socialization. Their cognitive delay limits them from entirely comprehending reinforcement alone. Visual encouragement permits their minds to adapt to a new idea and absorb it. This cultivates the question of whether or not special education classrooms are necessary for children with Down syndrome. Some suppose that normal education surroundings afford sufficient stimulus to adolescents affected with the disorder. On the other hand, in most cases the typical education surroundings are not adequate. There are specialists educating adolescents with cognitive delays such as those with Down syndrome. Special Education is a stand-alone discipline of study and cannot be anticipated from all that enter this particular teaching field. Special Education demands diverse methods and compassions compared to that of normal teachers. If an adolescent affected by Down syndrome were to be placed into the average classroom, the presence of an aid would be necessary. This poses funding issues as well as the adolescent’s parental trust. It is much more feasible to place these adolescents in special educational environments which possess several aids in addition to a se t pace of learning for each individual (Fidler Nadel, 2007). Fidler Nadel furthermore describe a â€Å"culture† in special needs classrooms where adolescents affected by Down syndrome can succeed. Countless adolescents requiring special needs flourish when surrounded by others who also differ from adolescents without disabilities. Nevertheless, adolescent’s parents frequently worry about the equal treatment and lack of socialization among unaffected children. This all differs among particular adolescents as well as the school they attend. Countless schools fashion an atmosphere in which adolescents requiring special needs possess the ability to interact with the other students at lunch, recess, homeroom, etc. Contrary to what Fidler Nadel explain, a study by Sobelman-Rosenthal, Biton, Klein (2009) examined children with Down syndrome in regular educational settings and compared to special education settings. Parents were questioned as to the setting they preferred for their child. Parents were divided into three groups: those who favored life-skills, those who favored academic success and those who favored social success. Generally, parents seemed to prefer regular educational setting. The parents perceived substantial developmental advances when their child was placed in a regular school environment. It is evident researchers have achieved contradictory outcomes. This is presumably due to the fact that every case differ from one another. Certain adolescents require additional help compared to others in addition certain special education programs are better than others. The answer is uncertain in regards to which educational settings more beneficial for an adolescent affected by Down syndrome since each setting possess there advantages and drawbacks. The safest thing for a parent to do is research individual surroundings in their school district and formulate an educated assessment from there (Fidler Nadel). The connection an adolescent affected by Down syndrome possesses regarding his or her mother also effects their mental development. â€Å"Communication between mother and infant occurs by many means: it employs facial expressions, gazing, whole body movements, gestures, speech, writing, and even crying â€Å"(Fiamenghi, Vedovato, Meirelles, Shimoda, 2010, 192). Adolescents require the ability to understand this interaction and in adolescents affected by Down syndrome it becomes difficult to understand if they comprehend the communication and its’ effects. Adolescents affected by Down syndrome occasionally require the development of a connection in diverse ways compared to unaffected children. The manner in which they do this is vital since it may possibly signify particular needs the child must have addressed that may not be exposed through clinical assessment. Nevertheless, since parents do not normally comprehend the syndrome entirely in earlier stages in their child’s life, they tend to be opposed in nearly all they do with their child. Parents regularly tend be afraid they are not caring for their child appropriately as a result become reluctant to do everything they would for an adolescent not affected by Down syndrome (Fiamenghi et al.) A study conducted in 2010 regarding collaborative behaviors in adolescents affected by Down syndrome with their mothers, three groups of behavior were recognized: Interaction, Invitation and Imitation. The outcomes specified that a sizeable amount of these behaviors benefited however quality is what made the significant differences in the adolescent’s emotional attachment. Down syndrome adolescents depend on on these behaviors for the reason that it aids them mentally develop. It is considerably simpler for them to mimic somebody they trust for example their mother or father, in contrast to merely learning these behaviors as they grow. The greater quality the imitation is in addition to interaction obtained throughout their earlier ages, the greater articulated constructive behavior as they grow up. The reasoning behind this is due to their cognitive delay becomes more prevalent with age. They have a scarcity of a particular characteristic of cognition that other adolescents p ossess, consequently these interactions become significant in demonstrating to them how to behave (Fiamenghi et al.) A study conducted in 1999 investigated bonding behaviors in 53 children aged 14-30 months. The children were exposed to a â€Å"Strange Situation† where an unfamiliar person would come into the room and the parent would leave. Their response to the parent leaving was then observed. They established that although attachment is exceptionally significant with Down syndrome children, it is not necessary to grant considerably more consideration than in children not affected by Down syndrome. The researchers discovered that parents should be mindful of however no additional action can counteract the child from theoretically suffering from attachment issues. Parents should approach attachment the exact same way as if their child was not effected by Down syndrome (Atkinson, Chisholm, Scott, Goldberg, Vaughn, Blackwell, Tam). Atkinson et al. findings vary marginally from Fiamenghi et al. nonetheless they equally possess similarities as well. Both research groups distinguish the significance of attachment in adolescents affected by Down syndrome. It appears Atkinson et al. would approve of Fiamenghi et al. findings that quality is the predicting factor, not quantity. Since each study exhibited the interactional significance between the parent and adolescents affected by Down syndrome, additional research on the topic possess the probability of making momentous advances in both psychology and special education. Although there are numerous means where adolescents affected by Down syndrome and adolescents without any developmental ailments can relate, there are still several variances in their mental development in which we must account for. The main variances are comprised of cognition, socialization, education and attachment. Cognition deals with their development through the stages of learning and comprehension. Socialization is a strength many children with Down syndrome possess. Their ability to dive in to any conversation is remarkable. Education is and most likely will continue to be an issue for all families with children affected by developmental disabilities. Each program differs so greatly that there simply cannot be one assumption made. Finally, the way in which they develop an attachment with their mothers can be critical but not any more so than children not inflicted by a disability. Down syndrome can present many obstacles for the child as well as the family, but there is no r eason they cannot live a life as fulfilling and exciting as the rest of us. References Atkinson, L., Chisholm, V. C., Scott, B., Goldberg, S., Vaughn, B. E., Blackwell, J., Tam, F. (1999). Maternal sensitivity, child functional level, and attachment in Down syndrome. Monographs Of The Society For Research In Child Development, 64(3), 45-66. doi:10.1111/1540-5834.00033 Cicchetti, D., Beeghly, M. (1990). Children with Down syndrome: A developmental  perspective. New York, NY US: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511581786 Drash, P. W., Raver, S. A., Murrin, M. R., Tudor, R. M. (1989). Three procedures for  increasing vocal response to therapist prompt in infants and children with Down syndrome. American Journal On Mental Retardation, 94(1), 64-73. Fiamenghi, G. A., Vedovato, A. G., Meirelles, M. C., Shimoda, M. E. (2010). Mothers  interaction with their disabled infants: Two case studies. Journal Of Reproductive And Infant Psychology, 28(2), 191-199. doi:10.1080/02646830903295042 Fidler, D. J., Nadel, L. (2007). Education and children with Down syndrome:  Neuroscience, development, and intervention. Mental Retardation And Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 13(3), 262-271. doi:10.1002/mrdd.20166 Hill, P. M., McCune-Nicolich, L. (1981). Pretend play and patterns of cognition in  Downs syndrome children. Child Development, 52(2), 611-617. doi:10.2307/1129181 Leifer, J. S., Lewis, M. (1984). Acquisition of conversational response skills by  young Down syndrome and nonretarded young children. American Journal Of Mental Deficiency, 88(6), 610-618. May, P. (2011). Child development in practice: Responsive teaching and learning  from birth to five. New York: Routledge. Mervis, C. B., Cardoso-Martins, C. (1984). Transition from sensorimotor Stage 5 to  Stage 6 by Down syndrome children: A response to Gibson. American Journal Of Mental Deficiency, 89(1), 99-102. Sanz, T., Menà ©ndez, J., Rosique, T. (2011). Study of different social rewards used in  Downs syndrome childrens early stimulation. Early Child Development And Care, 181(4), 487-492. doi:10.1080/03004430903507159 Sobelman-Rosenthal, V., Biton, E., Klein, P. S. (2009). Parental satisfaction with  special education versus mainstream education for children with Down Syndrome. Megamot, 46(3), 419-438.

Free Yellow Wallpaper Essays: Descriptions :: Yellow Wallpaper essays

Descriptions The Yellow Wallpaper The descriptive elements in The Yellow Wallpaper do a tremendous amount towards enhancing the reader's perception of the particular kind of insanity that afflicts the narrator. The descriptions, most notably of the wallpaper itself, are multi-sensory, artful and detailed. Using metaphorical images, and surprising combinations of words, the narrator gives numerous ways for readers to experience the wallpaper. In the line regarding the wallpaper: "...they connect diagonaly, and the sprawling outlines run off in great slanting waves of optic horror, like a lot of wallowing seaweeds in full chase." The word pairings of 'optic horror' and the similie are unusual and sensory. This serves to peak the reader's interest and more effectively draw the reader into the description. Additionally, the range of descriptions of the wallpaper not only cover several intense and detailed visual descriptions, but also an equally detailed olfactory description. The narrator describes the smell of the wallpaper in the following lines: But there is something else about that paper - the smell! I noticed it the moment we came into the room, but with so much air and sun it was not bad. Now we have had a week of fog and rain, and whether the windows are open or not, the smell is here. It creeps all over the house. I find it hovering in the dining-room, skulking in the parlor, hinding in the hall, lying in wait for me on the stairs. It gets into my hair. Even when I go to ride, if I turn my head suddenly and surprise it-there is that smell! Such a peculiar odor, too! I have spent hours trying to analize it, to find what it smelled like. It is not bad - at first, very gentle, but quite the subtlest, most enduring odor I ever met. In this damp weather it is awful. I wake up in the night and find it hanging over me. It used to disturb me at first. I thought seriously of burning the house-to reach the smell. But now I am used to it. The only thing I can think of that it is like is the color of the paper! A yellow smell. The two most notable descriptions of the wallpaper also follow (paragraphs removed to save space): I never saw a worse paper in my life.

Economies of Scale Essay -- Economics Economy Essays

Economies of Scale Economics Test 1. Define and explain all Internal Economies of Scale:  · Internal Economies of Scale:Are reductions in long-run average cost as the size and output of a firm increases. In other words, they are advantages that large firms have because they are large. As they grow larger in the long-run they manage to raise their output faster than the rise in their total costs. The result is lower long-run average cost. - Marketing economies- Both in buying materials and selling its finished goods a large firm is n a better position than a smaller one. In buying the products it needs, the large firm often pays less for raw materials, machinery and so on because suppliers are sure they are going to get large orders and do not want to lose a big customer. E.g. A producer of shoelaces will sell its products for à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¤1 per packet to Nike because it has an order of 1000 packets per week. But for Adidas it will sell them à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¤2 because it has only an order of 100 packets per week. So Nike has a lower cost per packet compare to Adidas. In selling its products, Nike can afford to pay for expensive and professionally made advertisements or employ specialist salesmen much easier than Adidas. The large total cost of advertising can be spread over a large output that is sold. Therefore, the average cost of advertising will be low. - Financial economies- If Nike is going to borrow money because it is a well known firm, it is considered more reliable, and less risky is easier to borrow than Adidas. So Nike can borrow a large amount of money with a lower interest rate compared to Adidas. E.g. If Nike borrows à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¤1, 000000 it will pay an 8% interest rate while if Adidas borrows à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¤1,000 it wil... ...At OQ the firm is enjoying Internal Economies of Scale and its average cost falls. Beyond this point, further growth would make the firm less efficient. Instead of producing with a low average cost, extra production would cause the average cost of each unit of output to rise. 8. Why do small firms still exist? - New firms - Firms do not start large. In other words. Many firms are small because they are new. Those that will be successful are expected to become large over the years. - Desire to remain in control- Sometimes owners of small firms may not want the firm to grow too large in case they lose personal control. - Lack of Finance- Small firms find it difficult to expand because they cannot raise finance. Large companies have huge retained profits and also can sell shares to the general public. Small firms can neither of these.

Chinas growing economy :: essays papers

After North America, Europe, and Japan, the area of China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong "is a fourth growth pole in the world economy" (Jue 108) which in 1994 was expected to double in size by 2002. Today, the growth rate is still on track to fulfill that prediction. Recent Chinese economic policies have shot the country into the world economy at full speed. As testimony of this, China’s gross domestic product has risen to seventh in the world, and its economy is growing at over nine percent per year (econ-gen 1). Starting in 1979, the Chinese have implemented numerous economic and political tactics to open the Chinese marketplace to the rest of the world. Chinese reform measures even anticipated the rush of foreign investment by opening newly expanded industries to out-of-country investors. As trade expands globally and countries within geographical proximity and of similar cultural descent and philosophies ally themselves in order to better compete on a world level, we are se eing the development of increasing number of geographical trade alliances, whatever the underlying reasons behind each. The alliances that have been in place for a while are proving to be very successful in competing in the international markets, stimulating the economies of nearly all of their member states. Effects of this change in economic strategy by a world power can be felt by practically every nation of the globe involved in international trade. The change in the amount of imports and exports to and from China will increase the demand on countless markets. Also, with all the foreign investment China is receiving, the socialistic republic will only grow more and more interdependent upon the world economy. However, the impressive growth rate of China’s economy is not without its shortcomings. Problems such as inflation and inefficient state-owned enterprises plague the rise of the Chinese economy. When China opened its economic borders 19 years ago, environmentalists spoke of the "efficiency" of their farming systems and how they used hardly any organic fuels in the production of food for their people relative to some of the other countries of the world-most notably the United States. What they neglected to mention, however, that one farmer at the end of one rake struggling to feed his family kept fuel consumption very low indeed. It was not, by any stretch, "efficient.

Chinese Civilization

The brilliant culture of the Chinese empire definitely had many contributions that are still being used in the world today. China's first civilization, like the other civilizations in the past, developed along a great river which was a great factor to the rise of this civilization is called the Yellow River. It begins in the mountains of western China and forms a huge look as It flows 3,000 to the Yellow river. The Yellow river regularly overflows In its banks and leaves rich soil which was a great contribution for the success of this civilization.However, spite the achievements and contributions, disastrous floods were common. According to the legend, the Ixia (Hiss) dynasty was started about 2,000 B. C. By You, a great hero. It was said that he was supposedly able to device a way to control the flooding waters in the Yellow River so that the farmers could still live in the valley. What if no one had discovered a way to control the flooding? Would there still have been a Chinese civ ilization or would it have led to its downfall at an instant?Many dynasties emerged in China each with different rulers and a mix of unity ND disunity, lawlessness, war, violence, and prosperity. The early rules of these dynasties were thought to be â€Å"sons of heaven† who were given the â€Å"mandate of heaven† which the approval of the gods to rule as long as they ruled well. According to tradition, the Ixia rulers were so cruel and abused their power which Is why they lost their mandate of heaven to the Shank dynasty.Based on the dynasties, many of the early rulers controlled small states near the Yellow river but Influenced a larger area. Also, many dynasties were at constant war with neighboring people, corruption as rampant, people were forced to pay high taxes and natural disasters and calamities were the main causes for the downfall of many dynasties. There were many contributions and important developments in society during the Chinese civilization. These in cluded tools and weapons made from stone, bone, and wood.Bronze was made into objects used by rulers and priests in religious rituals and ceremonies. Agriculture, technology, trade, and transportation all were undergoing changes at that time. Metalworkers learned how to make sturdy plows and sharp weapons. Canals for shipping were built (which shows the importance of he Yellow river In trade), and irrigation systems were developed. Also, in order to protect themselves, the Chinese constructed the Great Wall during the SQL dynasty but eventually killed many people.Furthermore, many new Ideas such as the knowledge of iron working, domestication of animals, horseback riding, and nomadic In addition to that, a teaching that developed during those periods was Confucianism. It developed from the teachings of the Confucius who was considered the greatest philosopher and teacher. He was concerned with questions of ethics and morality in terms of politics. According to Confucius, each person had a specific place in society and certain duties and responsibilities to fulfill.

Culture and Politics Essay

Culture and politics: An interesting concept, the idea of culture is hard to define. What exactly is culture? How does it affect us? In J. Harry Wray’s book Sense and Nonsense: American Culture and Politics, he says culture is â€Å"a shared symbol system, linking members of a group to each other and to history, thus providing them with an identity.† What this means is that culture is how different groups respond to and interpret symbols. As examples Wray talks about a aboriginal tribe in Malaysia who believe that thunder storms are the result of human violations of the natural order of things, whereas we see thunder storms as the mixing of a hot air mass colliding with a cooler one in the presence of certain conditions. Now that I’ve tried to define culture I want to try to show its importance. By defining culture as the way a collected group of people interpret symbols one must try to give an example of these symbols. Cultural symbols are essentially anything that is thought of as unique to a group people; however, it really could be anything such as a house, car, clothes, but also street signs, telephones, television, and radio. These cultural â€Å"symbols† are everywhere and usually we aren’t even aware that they are symbols of and to our culture. Since culture is the way we interpret these symbols, it is very important to realize that these symbols will affect our culture and moreover they will affect our politics. The ways our symbols will affect our politics are that they can change our perspectives and ideas about our communities and the world around us. Symbols in culture often affect politics and how government works, an example that Wray gives is the importance of family. In the U.S. family is stressed by almost every politician seeking office, however the Family Leave Bill took years to be voted into law. This controversial bill would allow a parent of a new born to take up to sixteen weeks of leave, without pay, without worrying about being fired. In Sweden, however, there were already different options for new parents. New parents there have the options of either parent taking up to a year off, with eighty percent of pay, or they can reduce their workload to five hours over the first few  years of early childhood at full pay. It makes me wonder why, in a society that is so focused on family that it took years to pass a bill that only gives one option and only to people who work for big businesses and in Sweden there were already at least two options. Another aspect of culture and politics is through multiculturalism. We generally think of society as a melting pot, but this really doesn’t explain multiculturalism well. Wray suggests that we think of our society as a mosaic, where different tiles represent different groups of people. This is a pretty good representation, but it is hard to decide how to split people up into different tiles. As more and more people come to the U.S. they change the society and may not fit into a tile that already exists. This shows how hard it is to actually define multiculturalism. Wray also suggests that we think of society as a cooking pot. As something is added to the stew it becomes part of the stew, sometimes it can even be completely dissolved onto the stew, but it can still be tasted. One way multiculturalism affects us is that it makes us more sensitive to differing views. In a society where there are people from different cultures you have to be able to listen to and make judgments for these people. In a society like ours you have to try to do what is good for everyone and that is hard when there are many cultures mixed together. Another way culture is affected is that you have different symbols to interpret and you will have different ways of interpreting these symbols. This will cause you to be sensitive to the views of others because you don’t know how symbols will be interpreted by other people therefore you have to think about how to make your ideas universal. In the end we see that culture is very important in our society and that it is very important to politics. Culture is present everywhere and sometimes we don’t even realize how it affects us. We also see that culture is very hard to define because there are so many different ways to look at culture, you can think of culture as symbols, or the way people live, or the native art or music. Whatever you think, culture is probably one of the most important influences on politics.